Unajua? – You can better understand independence movements in Africa with economics. People fought to keep, or take over, the control of land and labour.
Land is soil and whatever is on or under it, including natural resources like minerals (gold, diamonds) and cash crops (cotton, rubber).
Labour is the work that people do to produce a good or service. Forcing people to labor takes away their freedom, or independence.
In Africa, Europeans from countries like Belgium and Italy fought to build colonies and have control of African land and labour.
However, Africans fought back to keep, or take back, their land and freedom through independence movements.
In this article you will read about 9 independence movements in Africa during colonialism.
Independence movements in Africa were organized actions by African inhabitants against colonial rule and towards independence.
This article is part of the African Independence Movements series.
Major Independence Movements In Africa
MUHTASARI
Ever since the start of colonialism, Africans have fought to keep, or take back, their land and freedom. Every independence movement in Africa was different, because of the difference in people, time and places, however, all wanted independence.
Spot the differences between the 9 African independence movements in the article!
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Context
During the Scramble for Africa, in the late 1800s, Europeans started building colonies in Africa, and around the world. By 1914 Europeans had colonised most of the continent of Africa, often through bloody wars with the African inhabitants.
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1. Rhodesian Bush War
The Rhodesian Bush War was a civil war between three forces: the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA), the military wing of ZANU led by Robert Mugabe; the Zimbabwe People’s Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA), of ZAPU and Joshua Nkomo, and the Rhodesian Security Forces of Ian Smith.
At the time Rhodesia was ruled by a white minority and had been independent from Britain since 1965 (see Rhodesia’s UDI). It later became Zimbabwe-Rhodesia.
In Rhodesia, Africans and Europeans were not treated the same way. Many Africans had to live in crowded reserves while Europeans lived on their land (see the Land Apportionment Act of 1930).
Both ZANU and ZAPU political parties wanted majority rule, with a government representing all people in Zimbabwe.
The Rhodesian Bush War lasted 15 years, from 1964 to 1979, during the Cold War.
The war took place mainly on Shona and Ndebele land in Rhodesia, in the modern-day country of Zimbabwe.
The Lancaster House Agreement ended the Rhodesian Bush War; it was signed in 1979 by the Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF) led by Mugabe and Nkomo; Zimbabwe-Rhodesia and Britain.
In 1980 free elections took place and Zimbabweans got majority rule.
The Oriccle, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons
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2. Algerian War
The Algerian War was an important war between the National Liberation Army (ALN) – the military wing of the National Liberation Front (FLN) – and France.
In 1848 Algeria was split into three départements of France, which meant that Algeria and Algerians were officially ruled by France.
During the 132 years of French Algeria (1830-1962) hundreds of thousands of Europeans, called Pied-Noirs, immigrated to Algeria, while millions of Algerians died in wars, of diseases or were sent to concentration camps.
The FLN wanted independence from France so that Algerians could take back their land and freedom.
The Algerian War lasted 7 years, from 1954 to 1962. It took place on the land of Arab and Amazigh ethnic groups in French Algeria, which is today the country of Algeria.
In 1962 the FLN and France signed the Évian Accords, which are peace treaties that put an end to the Algerian War and after a referendum Algeria officially became independent from France.
Zdravko Pečar, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons
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3. Mau Mau Rebellion
The Mau Mau Rebellion was a war between the Kenya Land and Freedom Army (KLFA) led by Dedan Kimathi, and Britain.
KLFA members mostly belonged to the Kikuyu ethnic group, although there was a great number of people from the Meru, Maasai and Kamba people, among others.
The Mau Mau fought for Ithaka na Wiyathi, which means land and freedom.
Before the war thousands of Britons settled in central Kenya (mainly Kikuyu land at the time) where they grew cash crops like coffee using African labour.
They banned Africans from growing coffee, made them pay a hut tax and from the age of 15 years boys and men had to wear a kipande (ID) around their neck.
The KLFA fought to take their land and freedom back from Britain.
The Mau Mau Rebellion happened during the Kenya Emergency, from 1952 to 1960, on the land of many ethnic groups in British Kenya, modern-day Kenya.
In 1956 Dedan Kimathi was captured and the Mau Mau Rebellion was crushed by Britain however, the rebellion continued after independence.
The Mau Mau Rebellion inspired African nationalists, especially Kenyans, to continue working towards independence. Kenya became independent from Britain in 1963.
© IWM (MH 4600)
4. Anglo-Zulu War
The Anglo-Zulu War was fought between the Zulu Kingdom and Britain. It had many bloody battles; Britain lost more soldiers than usual for colonial wars.
Britain wanted to war against the Zulu Kingdom so that it could control the region and use African labour in sugar plantations and mines.
In December of 1878, Sir Bartle Frere sent an ultimatum to the Zulu King Cetshwayo. The king did not accept it and Britain invaded the Zulu Kingdom.
The Anglo-Zulu War lasted close to six months, from January to July 1879. It took place in the Zulu Kingdom which is in northeastern modern-day South Africa.
The Zulu Kingdom lost the Anglo-Zulu War and the control of the region to Britain.
It took about a hundred years, and many protests, for South Africans to bring back majority rule.
Charles Edwin Fripp, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
5. Maji Maji Rebellion
The Maji Maji Rebellion was war between various peoples in Tanzania and Germany.
During colonialism Germans forced Tanzanians to labour for them. Tanzanians had to build their roads and were forced to grow cash crops like cotton for Germans to sell overseas.
Tanzanians warred against the Germans to put a stop to their suffering.
The Maji Maji Rebellion took place on the land of many ethnic groups like the Matumbi and Ngoni peoples in Tanganyika which is now southern Tanzania. It lasted 2 years, from 1905 to 1907.
After Germany won the Maji Maji Rebellion there was a famine called Ukame, or the Great Hunger because of the scorched-earth policies the governor G.A. von Götzen used during the war.
It took more independence movements, led by people like Julius Nyerere with TANU for Tanzania to become independent from Britain*.
Downluke, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons
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6. Rif War
The Rif War was a war between the Rif Republic and Spain, later joined by France. Different Amazigh ethnic groups formed the Rif Republic.
At the Berlin Conference Spain decided that the Rif region was Spanish territory, however, until then Spain had no real power there.
The Rif was rich in high-grade iron, that Spain soon started mining, something that Riffians did not want.
In 1921 Spain started invading the Rif to have real control of the region and the Riffians, led by Abd el-Krim, fought back.
The Rif War lasted for 6 years, from 1921 to 1926, during the interwar years. It took place in the Rif region, in the modern-day country of Morocco.
In 1926 Abd el-Krim surrendered and Spain got real control of the Rif region. The Rif War added on to problems in Spain, including the military coup of 1923.
It took many more independence movements like riots and rebellion for the Kingdom of Morocco to become independent from France in 1956.
Agence Rol, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
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7. War of the Golden Stool
The War of the Golden Stool, or the Fifth Anglo-Ashanti War, was a war between the Ashanti Kingdom and Britain.
The Golden Stool was a royal and sacred throne and the symbol of power in the Ashanti Kingdom.
In 1900, at a meeting with Ashanti leaders, Governor Sir Frederick Mitchell Hodgson, demanded to have the Golden Stool and to sit on it – so that Britain could rule the Ashanti and their land, which was rich in gold.
Soon after, the Ashanti kingdom, led by the Queen Mother Yaa Asantewaa, fought back to protect the Golden Stool.
The War of the Golden Stool lasted 7 months, from March to September 1900. The war took place in the Ashanti Kingdom, in the modern-day country of Ghana.
The Golden Stool was never found by the British. The Ashanti Kingdom kept its independence, even though it was made into a British Crown Colony in 1902.
After the war, Britain exiled many Ashanti leaders like the Queen Yaa Asantewaa and the king Prempeh I, to the Seychelles for 25 years.
“I must say this, if you, the men of Ashanti, will not go forward, then we will. We, the women, will. I shall call upon my fellow women. We will fight! We will fight till the last of us falls in the battlefields.” – the Queen Mother Yaa Asantewaa I, 1900
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8. Portuguese Colonial War
The Portuguese Colonial War was a war between various African independence movements and Portugal.
Major movements include the African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC), the People’s Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) and the Mozambique Liberation Front (FRELIMO).
During Portuguese colonialism Africans were forced to work, often with no pay (see the Chibalo system), their land was made into official overseas provinces of Portugal.
Africans fought Portugal to end colonialism and take back their land and freedom. During the Portuguese War most African countries were already independent.
The Portuguese Colonial War was fought during the Cold war between 1961 and 1974, it lasted 13 years.
It took place on three different territories, known as Portuguese Africa at the time, today they are the countries of Angola, Guinea-Bissau and Mozambique.
All three countries became independent from Portugal between 1973 and 1974.
Bloody civil wars continued in Angola and Mozambique; both ended following the Cold War.
Unknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
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9. Cameroon War
The Cameroon War was a war between various independence movements in Cameroon and France.
In 1884, during the Scramble for Africa, Cameroon was under German colonialism. By the end of the First World War it was divided between France and British.
From the 1940s onwards inhabitants of Cameroon started to fight for their freedom from colonialism.
Many nationalist political parties were created, like the Cameroonian Peoples Union (UPC), which was the most first one in the Cameroon War.
The Cameroon War of independence lasted 10 years, from 1955 to 1964, during the Algerian War, also fought by France.
It took place on the land of many ethnic groups like the Bamileke, in the French colony of Cameroun, which is today the country of Cameroon.
Cameroon became independent from France in 1960, however, the war continued until the early 1970s.
NNorthTension, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons
* After Germany lost the First World War its colonies like Tanganyika were taken over by other European empires like Britain.
What wars of independence shaped the history of the place you live in?
When the elephants fight, the grass gets trampled
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The Ashanti Expedition, Volume 91: debated on Tuesday 19 March 1901
References
Rhodesian Bush War
Wikipedia Contributors. “Rhodesian Bush War.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 9 Sept. 2019, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodesian_Bush_War.
Algerian War
Wikipedia Contributors. “Algerian War.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 2 Jan. 2019, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algerian_War.
Wikipedia Contributors. “Algeria.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 14 June 2019, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria.
Mau Mau Rebellion
Wikipedia Contributors. “Mau Mau Rebellion.” Wikipedia, 13 May 2022, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mau_Mau_rebellion.
Anglo-Zulu War
Wikipedia Contributors. “Anglo-Zulu War.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 10 Oct. 2019, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Zulu_War.
Rif War
Wikipedia Contributors. “Rif War.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 22 Jan. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rif_War.
War of the Golden Stool
Wikipedia Contributors. “War of the Golden Stool.” Wikipedia, 28 June 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_the_Golden_Stool.
Wikipedia Contributors. “Anglo-Ashanti Wars.” Wikipedia, 2 Mar. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Ashanti_wars.
Portuguese Colonial War
Wikipedia Contributors. “Portuguese Colonial War.” Wikipedia, 9 May 2022, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_Colonial_War.
Cameroon War
Wikipedia Contributors. “Cameroon War.” Wikipedia, 18 Nov. 2023, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameroon_War.
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